The Star Larvae Hypothesis
Nature's Plan for Humankind
Part 2. Star Larvae

Silicon and Biogenesis

Atoms are star spores. Biological life is cosmic, not terrestrial, in origin and scope.

Explaining life's origins remains a conundrum. Assertions fly. And theologians, scientists, and school boards are likely to continue debating the issue for some time. Whatever the outcome of their disputations, this much is certain: If the universe spent its first moments as a ball of dense radiation, then it could not have harbored life from the beginning. The first biological cells arose at some time and at some place.

According to the standard Big Bang cosmology, the primordial radiation cooled as it expanded, and subatomic particles condensed from the cooling radiation. This original supply of particles, under the influence of gravity, organized itself into diffuse bodies, or clouds, at various places in the developing universe. As each particle cloud grew more massive, it condensed faster, under the influence of its own growing gravity. Eventually, pressures in the dense centers of these clouds ignited nuclear reactions, and the first generation of stars was born. These original stars manufactured, as each generation continues to do, the various species of atoms that are needed to construct planets, moons, comets, and the other components of solar systems. Nature uses an assortment of atoms in her manufacturing processes: ordinary metals; radioactive metals; inert gasses; and the biologically significant elements carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.

Nature's atomic widgets at some point got assembled into simple molecules, organic macromolecules, and ultimately into the first viruses and bacteria. Where and how did this precise engineering occur? And is it still occurring?

The prevailing scientific assumption is that atoms and simple molecules first got assembled into macromolecules and cells somewhere on the surface, or near the deep-sea vents, of the early Earth. Attempts to recreate the chemical, thermal, and other conditions that characterized the Earth after it cooled have been made in various laboratory experiments. The pursuit of the chemical path that led to the first cell has left behind a legacy of inconclusive results, in which mixtures of simple molecules, such as methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water, reacting chemically under the influence of electric sparks or other energy sources, have produced various consistencies of organic sludge. The experiments have been modified in various ways, as scientists have tried to produce a promising result. But the process by which living cells arose, or could arise, from nonliving material remains mysterious.

However, the simple observation that material moves through the galaxy—pushed by stellar winds and carried by comets and by the circulatory effects of the galaxy’s own rotation—means that geocentric assumptions can be set aside, and investigators can cast their nets almost anywhere in search of conditions favorable to the manufacturing of the first biological cells. There is no shortage of means by which viruses and bacteria could be transported to Earth and other planets. And no shortage of extremophile micro-organisms that thrive in conditions once thought inhospitable to life.

The manufacturing of molecular-scale devices in industry is called nanotechnology. The search for the origins of biological life should focus on finding conditions conducive to a natural nanotechnology—that is, material conditions conducive to manufacturing amino and nucleic acids and then assembling them into viruses and bacteria. In other words, researchers should be looking for real estate equipped with an infrastructure that would support cell factories.

Silicon and Carbon: Chemical Cousins

The physical and chemical conditions inside stellar nebualae—the clouds of gas and dust from which stars and their planets condense—would seem to be more conducive to hosting a natural cell factory than would conditions on the surface of a freshly minted planet. The energetically dynamic environment of an embryonic solar system seems to be ideally suited to deliver life. And the element silicon seems ideally suited to play the role of midwife.

Silicon, like carbon, has a habit of bonding chemically with its own kind. This habit produces a parallelism on the macroscopic scale in the forms and properties of structures based on these elements. For example, silicon and carbon form three-dimensional crystals: carbon as diamond and the so-called buckeyballs or fullerenes and silicon as varieties of familiar mineral crystals, or silicates, including precious stones and clays, along with, under intelligent design, the circuitry of electronics. Packed less tightly, the atoms will compose flexible chains, such as those that form the "backbones" of plastic polymers (carbon) and of synthetic rubbers, or silicones (silicon). These two elements are unique in their tendency to bond chemically to form geometrically defined matrices and chains. This shared habit might predispose them to work cooperatively, given the right conditions.

A natural nanotechnology, or cell factory, needs an energy source, and a means of directing energy precisely to shepherd chemical reactions up against the thermodynamic gradient through levels of increasing chemical complexity, away from equilibrium. It has to be able to catalyze organic reactions to build macromolecules and provide a physical structure to hold organic molecules in place during their assembly into cellular substructures.

Given these criteria, silicon tops the list of potential facilitators for the organic synthesis of living cells. Silicon naturally bonds with various metals to form a variety of periodic and aperiodic crystalline forms. Silicate crystals potentially could serve as templates during organic synthesis. Nucleic acids and proteins in their crystalline forms could handily interlock with silicate crystals in secure arrangements during their assembly into larger structures. (Crystallography remains a primary laboratory technique for determining the structures of proteins. It is the methodology that was used to determine the double helix structure of DNA.)

Silicon also has photoelectric properties; it can convert light into electricity. The solar-energy industry exploits the photovoltaic properties of silicates. As a result, silicon potentially solves the problem of converting starlight into electricity to drive organic synthesis. Some silicon crystals also possess piezoelectric properties. Under pressure, they generate an electric current. Phonograph needles exploit this effect. Piezoelectric effects provide another potential source of energy for a silicate-based cell factory.

Silicates also have a capacity to catalyze organic synthesis. Certain chemical reactions that build complex organic molecules from simpler ones occur more readily in the presence of certain silicate minerals. Clay-catalyzed RNA synthesis, for example, has been demonstrated in the research of James Ferris at New York’s Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (see http://www.origins.rpi.edu/chem_pubs.html#ferris. Tim Tyler has posted a bibliography of references to silicate-mediated organic synthesis at http://originoflife.net/links/index.html). NASA researchers Hugh Hill and Joseph Nuth similarly have demonstrated the ability of amorphous iron and magnesium silicates to catalyze a variety of organic molecules from a gas mixture containing only carbon monoxide, nitrogen and hydrogen.

As to where a silicate-managed nanotechnology might operate in nature, it turns out that all of the necessary ingredients are at hand in what astronomers call "the local interstellar cloud," which is the cloud of gas and dust particles in which our solar system is embedded. The most abundant element in the cloud, as throughout the universe, is hydrogen, the starting material from which stars manufacture all other elements. Next in abundance in the local cloud are the elements carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, the primary building blocks of organic chemistry—and silicon, magnesium, and iron, potentially suitable materials from which nature could construct nanotech assembly lines for the mass production of biological cells.

From observations of young stars of intermediate size, so-called Herbig Ae stars, which resemble the sun in its infancy, and from observations of the known contents of comets, Hill and Nuth propose that, when solar systems form inside cooling stellar nebulae, silicate grains catalyze simple organic reactions to produce a variety of prebiotic organic molecules. The prevailing scientific model of interstellar grains, based on spectrographic analysis, is of carbonate shells covering silicate nuclei. These reactions require the heat and pressures found near the protostar. The grains, coated with simple organics, then are transported by a "circulatory system" of material flowing from the center of the nebula out to a distance typical of that at which comets are thought to form. (The research by Nuth, Hill, and colleagues appears in Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIIII [2002], and see the paper "Protostars are Nature's Chemical Factories," by Nuth and Johnson in Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVI [2005]. A summary of this research is provided in "Constraints on Nebular Dynamics and Chemistry Based on Observations of Annealed Magnesium Silicate Grains in Comets and in Disks Surrounding Herbig Ae/Be Stars", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 98, No. 5, Feb. 27, 2001, 2182-2187.)

NASA's Stardust mission, which in 2004 captured and returned to Earth dust from the comet Wild 2, provided additional corroborating evidence of such silicate transport processes. And isotope analysis provides additional evidence. The cometary dust included silicate crystals that could form only in the innermost regions of the solar system, which then must have been transported to farther, colder regions, where they were incorporated into comets. At later stages in a developing solar system, when planets are forming, the characteristic silicate material identifiable in the circumstellar dust includes a greater proportion of crystalline (as opposed to amorphous) silicates, and the organic content of the dust comprises increasingly complex molecules. This suggests a two-step process, in which simple organics are catalyzed near the protostar, then transported to cooler regions for further, more precise processing. The second step relies on crystalline silicates. Nasa's Spitzer Space Telescope has revealed similar processes operating in other galaxies.

Because crystallization on Earth is subject to sedimentation and the turbulence of convection currents, the semiconductor industry continues to work with NASA to investigate silicon crystallization in space. In weightlessness, silicon crystals can be grown larger and with greater purity—geometrical regularity—than they can on Earth. This effect suggests that the manufacturing of viruses and bacteria in space could occcur on a massive, cosmic scale.

Darwin's hypothetical "small warm pond" in which he imagined life arose, may be a less fitting image than that of a "big cold cloud."

In summary, the star larvae hypothesis tightens the scientific model of biological origins by proposing

• Specific physical mechanisms: 1. crystalline silicate templates or "scaffolding" to hold in place partially assembled macromolecules, 2. silicate catalysis of organic chemistry, 3. a source of (electrical) energy available to molecular-scale assemblies.
• Specific material agents driving the mechanisms: amorphous and crystalline silicate minerals.
• Specific locations where the agents are observed to commingle with organic material: cooling stellar/planetary nebulae.

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